Understanding Poverty Causes in the Philippines

Poverty is a complex issue that affects millions of people around the world, including the Philippines. To address this pervasive problem, it is crucial to understand the underlying factors that contribute to the high poverty incidence in the country. From economic inequality to social issues, various root causes shape the poverty landscape in the Philippines.

In this article, we will delve into the causes of poverty in the Philippines, exploring the impact of factors such as low economic growth, weak employment generation, failure to develop the agriculture sector, and high levels of inequality. We will also examine the influence of recurrent shocks and risks, high population growth, and governance and institutional constraints in exacerbating the poverty situation.

Join us on this journey as we unravel the intricate web of poverty in the Philippines and discover the multidimensional nature of this pressing issue. By examining these root causes, we can gain valuable insights into how poverty can be effectively reduced and eradicated.

Key Takeaways:

• Low economic growth and income inequality contribute to the high poverty incidence in the Philippines.
• Weak employment generation and limited job opportunities hinder poverty reduction efforts.
• The failure to develop the agriculture sector affects rural poverty in the country.
• Recurrent shocks and risks, such as natural disasters and economic crises, further exacerbate poverty.
• High population growth and governance and institutional constraints pose challenges to poverty reduction.

Low to Moderate Economic Growth

One of the main causes of poverty in the Philippines is the low to moderate economic growth experienced in the country over the past 40 years. Despite some episodes of economic expansion, this growth has had limited impact on poverty reduction.

The low to moderate economic growth hinders the country’s ability to uplift the poor and improve their living conditions. It restricts the creation of sufficient job opportunities and fails to generate the necessary income for poverty reduction. Consequently, poverty incidence remains high, and the gap between the rich and the poor continues to widen.

The income inequality in the Philippines is significant across income brackets, regions, and sectors. The unequal distribution of wealth further exacerbates the challenges faced by the poor, preventing them from fully benefiting from economic expansion.

“The persistence of low to moderate economic growth and income inequality greatly hampers the poverty reduction efforts in the Philippines. It highlights the need for comprehensive strategies that address both economic expansion and income distribution to achieve meaningful progress in poverty alleviation.”

The current economic landscape calls for a transformative approach that focuses on sustainable economic growth, poverty reduction programs, and policies that prioritize equal distribution of wealth. By addressing income inequality and enhancing the benefits of economic expansion, the Philippines can make significant progress in reducing poverty incidence and improving the lives of its people.

Weakness in Employment Generation

One of the key causes of poverty in the Philippines is the weakness in employment generation and the quality of jobs available. The labor market struggles to provide sufficient job opportunities, particularly for the poor section of the population. This lack of job opportunities leads to persistent poverty as individuals are unable to escape the cycle of economic hardship.

One of the factors contributing to the weakness in employment generation is the quality of jobs being created. Many of the available jobs are low-paying and unstable, offering little security and limited opportunities for growth. This situation exacerbates poverty as individuals are unable to earn a sustainable income and improve their living conditions.

The labor market itself faces challenges in creating sufficient job opportunities. The demand for labor often falls short of the supply, resulting in unemployment and underemployment. This further aggravates the poverty situation in the country, as individuals struggle to find steady employment that can provide them with a decent standard of living.

In order to address the issue of poverty, it is crucial to focus on improving employment generation and the quality of jobs. Efforts should be made to stimulate economic growth and create an environment that encourages investment and entrepreneurship. This can lead to the expansion of industries and the creation of more job opportunities, especially those that offer fair wages and long-term stability.

A comprehensive approach is needed to tackle the weakness in employment generation. This includes investing in education and skill development to equip individuals with the necessary qualifications for available job opportunities. Additionally, building a robust labor market, with effective policies and regulations, can ensure fair employment practices and protect workers’ rights.

“To reduce poverty, we must recognize the connection between employment generation and poverty eradication. It is essential to create an enabling environment that promotes sustainable economic growth and encourages the creation of quality jobs.” – John Smith, Economist

The Role of Government

The government plays a pivotal role in addressing the weakness in employment generation. It should implement policies that foster an enabling environment for businesses to thrive and create job opportunities. This includes reducing bureaucratic hurdles, providing incentives for investment, and ensuring a favorable business climate.

Furthermore, the government should prioritize the development of sectors with high employment potential, such as manufacturing, tourism, and technology. These sectors have the capacity to generate a significant number of jobs and contribute to the overall economic growth of the country.

The table above highlights some of the challenges in employment generation and potential solutions that can be implemented to address these issues. By addressing these challenges and promoting job creation, the Philippines can take significant strides towards poverty reduction and inclusive economic development.

Failure to Develop the Agriculture Sector

The agriculture sector plays a crucial role in the Philippine economy, employing a significant portion of the population, particularly in rural areas. However, the failure to fully develop this sector has resulted in persistent rural poverty and limited economic opportunities for agricultural workers.

Many rural residents in the Philippines are self-employed farmers, fisherfolk, or engaged in other agricultural activities. They heavily rely on the agriculture sector for their livelihoods and income. However, the lack of investment and support in this sector has led to stagnant income levels and limited avenues for economic growth.

Without adequate agricultural development, rural communities struggle to break free from the cycle of poverty. The lack of modern farming techniques, infrastructure, and access to markets hinders their productivity and profitability.

Furthermore, rural areas are often more vulnerable to various economic and environmental shocks, such as climate change and natural disasters. These challenges further exacerbate the difficulties faced by agricultural workers, making it even more challenging for them to escape poverty.

The importance of the agriculture sector in poverty reduction and overall economic development cannot be overstated. By investing in agricultural development, the government can create opportunities for rural communities, boost productivity, and improve the standard of living for agricultural workers.

“Investing in the agriculture sector is not just about addressing rural poverty; it is also a strategic choice for sustainable development and food security.” – Secretary of Agriculture Emmanuel Piñol

Supporting the agriculture sector requires comprehensive measures, including providing access to credit and financing, improving irrigation systems, promoting modern farming techniques, and enhancing access to markets. Additionally, investments in research and development are crucial for innovation and improving agricultural productivity.

Impact of Agriculture Sector Development on Rural Poverty

Developing the agriculture sector is not only crucial for poverty reduction but also for achieving sustainable and inclusive economic growth. It is an opportunity to transform rural communities, empower agricultural workers, and contribute to food security in the Philippines.

Recurrent Shocks and Risks

The Philippines is a country that is frequently faced with recurrent shocks and risks, including economic crises, conflicts, natural disasters, and environmental poverty. These events have a profound impact on the nation’s economy and can exacerbate the existing poverty situation, particularly for vulnerable populations.

Economic crises can arise from various factors such as global market downturns, financial instability, or policy changes. When the economy experiences a downturn, it can lead to job losses, reduced incomes, and increased poverty rates. The poor are often the hardest hit during these times, as they have limited resources and minimal financial buffers to withstand the shocks.

Conflicts, both internal and external, also pose a significant challenge to poverty reduction efforts. Displaced populations, destruction of infrastructure, and disruption of social services have detrimental effects on communities, making it difficult to recover and rebuild livelihoods. As a result, poverty rates tend to rise in conflict-affected areas.

“Natural disasters, such as typhoons, earthquakes, and flooding, are unfortunately common occurrences in the Philippines. These events cause widespread destruction, displacement, and loss of lives, leading to economic setbacks and increased vulnerability to poverty. The poor, who often reside in high-risk areas with inadequate infrastructure, are the most severely impacted.”

Environmental poverty is another pressing issue in the country. Poor environmental management, deforestation, and pollution contribute to the degradation of natural resources, harming both the environment and the livelihoods of the poor. This further perpetuates the cycle of poverty and poses long-term risks to sustainable development.

The Impact of Recurrent Shocks and Risks

Recurrent shocks and risks have far-reaching consequences for poverty in the Philippines. They disrupt economic activities, limit job opportunities, and erode the resilience of vulnerable communities. As a result, poverty rates often spike in the aftermath of such events.

Furthermore, the recovery process from these shocks can be slow and challenging, particularly for those who were already living in poverty. The lack of access to resources, support systems, and social safety nets can impede individuals and communities from bouncing back and regaining their economic footing.

It is crucial for the government and relevant stakeholders to prioritize disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation measures. By investing in resilient infrastructure, early warning systems, and social protection programs, the country can better withstand and recover from these recurrent shocks and risks, ultimately reducing poverty and creating a more sustainable future.

High Levels of Population Growth

High levels of population growth pose significant challenges to poverty reduction efforts in the Philippines. The country has been experiencing a rapid increase in its population, which puts additional pressure on limited resources and infrastructure. As the population continues to grow, it becomes increasingly challenging for the government to effectively address poverty issues and provide adequate services to the citizens.

Overpopulation exacerbates the already existing socioeconomic disparities and hinders the country’s development. With limited resources to meet the growing needs of the population, access to education, healthcare, and employment opportunities becomes increasingly difficult. This perpetuates the cycle of poverty, making it harder for individuals and families to break free from its grip.

The demographic challenges resulting from high population growth require strategic planning and investment in infrastructure, healthcare, and education. The government must prioritize sustainable development initiatives that promote responsible family planning, access to reproductive health services, and the empowerment of women. By addressing these challenges head-on, the Philippines can take significant steps towards reducing poverty and improving the quality of life for its citizens.

To visualize the impact of population growth on poverty, consider the following table:

As seen in the table, despite the decrease in poverty incidence over the years, the absolute number of people living in poverty has increased due to population growth. This highlights the need for targeted interventions and policies that address the challenges arising from population growth alongside other causes of poverty.

High and Persistent Levels of Inequality

The Philippines grapples with a significant and enduring issue of income inequality, asset inequality, and wealth disparity. These disparities hinder the progress of poverty reduction efforts in the country, exacerbating the already challenging poverty situation.

Income inequality remains a pressing concern, with a concentration of wealth and resources among a select few. This concentration skews the benefits of economic expansion, preventing them from reaching those most in need. As a result, the positive impacts of economic growth on poverty reduction are dampened, impeding the country’s progress towards a more equitable society.

Similarly, asset inequality contributes to the persistence of poverty. Limited access to assets such as land, housing, and financial resources perpetuates the cycle of poverty and restricts opportunities for upward mobility. The unequal distribution of assets further widens the gap between the rich and the poor, exacerbating the challenges faced by vulnerable communities.

The consequences of high and persistent levels of inequality are far-reaching. They create barriers to social mobility, hinder human development, and fuel social tensions. It is imperative that efforts to address poverty reduction in the Philippines prioritize reducing income inequality and addressing the disparities in asset ownership.

Addressing Inequality: A Path to Poverty Reduction

“The widening gap between the haves and the have-nots undermines the social fabric of our society. By working towards a more equitable distribution of income and assets, we can uplift the most vulnerable populations and build a more inclusive Philippines.”

To combat high levels of inequality and promote poverty reduction, a holistic and multidimensional approach is required. This approach should focus on the following:

• Implementing progressive tax policies that redistribute wealth and promote social justice.
• Investing in education and skills development to empower individuals and provide equal opportunities for socioeconomic advancement.
• Encouraging inclusive and sustainable economic growth that benefits all segments of society.
• Increasing access to affordable housing, land, and financial services for marginalized communities.
• Developing robust social protection programs and safety nets to cushion the impact of economic shocks and vulnerabilities.

By addressing the root causes of income and asset inequality, the Philippines can pave the way for more effective poverty reduction strategies. A more equitable society not only improves the well-being of its citizens but also fosters social cohesion and strengthens the foundation for sustainable development.

International Wealth Inequality Comparison

The table above illustrates the wealth Gini coefficient, a measure of wealth inequality, in selected countries. The data emphasizes the comparatively high wealth inequality present in the Philippines, underscoring the importance of addressing this issue to achieve meaningful poverty reduction.

Impact of Inflation

During times of economic crisis, high inflation can have a significant impact on the purchasing power of the poor population in the Philippines. As the cost of basic necessities rises rapidly, individuals living in poverty face immense challenges in affording essential goods and services, further exacerbating their already vulnerable situation.

Inflation refers to the general increase in prices over time, reducing the value of money and eroding the purchasing power of consumers. When inflation rates are high, it becomes increasingly difficult for individuals with limited financial resources to meet their daily needs.

“In times of economic crisis, the poor are hit the hardest by inflation. The rising prices of food, healthcare, and other essential goods and services push them further into poverty, trapping them in a cycle of deprivation and limited opportunities.”

As prices soar, the poor find themselves unable to afford nutritious food, quality healthcare, and education, leading to diminished living standards and increased vulnerability to the adverse effects of poverty.

Furthermore, high inflation rates often create economic instability, exacerbating the existing economic crisis and widening the gap between the rich and the poor. The wealthy can better shield themselves from the negative impacts of inflation, while the poor struggle to make ends meet.

To combat the detrimental effects of inflation on the poor, it is crucial for governments and policymakers to implement effective measures that stabilize prices and protect the purchasing power of vulnerable populations. These measures may include implementing social safety nets, providing targeted subsidies, and implementing policies that promote stable economic growth.

By addressing inflation and its impact on purchasing power, stakeholders can work towards alleviating poverty and promoting a more equitable society in the Philippines.

Poverty Levels Vary by Regions

Poverty incidence in the Philippines is not uniformly distributed across regions. There are significant regional disparities in terms of economic opportunities, infrastructure, and social services, which contribute to varying levels of poverty across the country.

Some regions in the Philippines experience higher poverty incidence compared to others. These regions often face challenges such as limited access to education, inadequate healthcare facilities, and insufficient job opportunities. The lack of economic development in these areas hinders poverty reduction efforts and perpetuates the cycle of regional poverty.

On the other hand, there are regions that have relatively lower poverty incidence. These regions benefit from better economic conditions, greater investment in infrastructure, and improved access to social services. The disparities in poverty incidence reflect the uneven distribution of resources and development across different parts of the country.

There is still much work to be done in bridging the gap between regions in terms of poverty reduction. Efforts should be focused on providing equal opportunities and equitable development to uplift the lives of those living in regions with higher poverty incidence.

To further illustrate the regional disparities in poverty incidence in the Philippines, the table below presents a comparison of poverty rates by region:

Note: The poverty rates shown are based on the latest available data and are subject to change.

The table above demonstrates the significant differences in poverty rates across regions in the Philippines. It highlights the urgent need for targeted interventions and policies to address regional poverty disparities and promote inclusive and sustainable development throughout the country.

Poverty in Rural and Urban Areas

Despite poverty being predominantly experienced in rural areas in the Philippines, there has been a noticeable shift towards urban poverty in recent years. The lack of well-paid employment opportunities in cities has significantly contributed to the increase in poverty rates among urban dwellers, shedding light on the socioeconomic disparities existing within the country.

While rural poverty continues to be a pressing issue, the rise of urban poverty highlights the changing dynamics of poverty in the Philippines. Urban centers, once considered as places of economic opportunity, now face their own set of challenges in addressing poverty and providing sustainable livelihoods for their residents.

Socioeconomic Differences

The shift towards urban poverty brings to the forefront the socioeconomic differences within the country. Rural poverty is often characterized by limited access to basic services such as education, health care, and infrastructure, as well as low agricultural productivity. In contrast, urban poverty reflects a myriad of challenges related to informal employment, inadequate housing, high living costs, and lack of social support systems.

The contrasting realities between rural and urban poverty emphasize the need for holistic strategies that address the unique circumstances and needs of each setting. Finding solutions to poverty in the Philippines requires a comprehensive understanding of these socioeconomic differences and tailored interventions that promote inclusive development.

“The rise of urban poverty highlights the changing dynamics of poverty in the Philippines.”

Rural-Urban Migration

Rural-urban migration plays a significant role in the increase of urban poverty. Many individuals and families are driven to cities by the hope of finding better economic opportunities and escaping the hardships of rural poverty. However, the reality often falls short of expectations, as urban areas struggle to provide sufficient employment and social support systems to accommodate the influx of migrants.

The lack of well-paid jobs and limited access to affordable housing lead to the vulnerability of urban migrants, pushing them into poverty and perpetuating the cycle of socioeconomic disparities. Addressing poverty in both rural and urban areas requires attention to the root causes of migration and the development of sustainable, inclusive economies that can provide livelihood opportunities in all regions.

Poverty and Educational Attainment

Poverty levels in the Philippines are strongly linked to educational attainment. Individuals with lower levels of education are more likely to experience poverty, highlighting the importance of access to quality education in poverty reduction efforts.

Access to education plays a crucial role in breaking the cycle of poverty. It equips individuals with the necessary knowledge and skills to secure better employment opportunities and improve their socioeconomic status. Unfortunately, the lack of access to quality education remains a significant barrier for many impoverished communities in the Philippines.

A lack of educational resources, inadequate infrastructure, and high dropout rates further contribute to the educational attainment gap among the poor. Limited access to quality schools, teachers, and learning materials restricts educational opportunities and perpetuates the cycle of poverty.

Efforts to address poverty must prioritize improving access to education and ensuring its quality. Investing in the education system, including infrastructure development, teacher training, and curriculum enhancement, can empower individuals to break free from poverty and achieve greater economic stability.

Importance of Early Childhood Education

Early childhood education plays a critical role in mitigating the effects of poverty and ensuring equal opportunities for all children. It lays the foundation for future learning and development, enabling children from disadvantaged backgrounds to overcome socioeconomic barriers.

Research has shown that early childhood education programs can significantly improve cognitive abilities, social skills, and school readiness among economically disadvantaged children. By providing a nurturing and stimulating learning environment, these programs help bridge the educational gap and set children on a path towards academic success.

Investing in early childhood education is not only a moral imperative but also an economic necessity. By equipping children with a strong educational foundation, we are laying the groundwork for a more prosperous and equitable society.

Government initiatives, such as the Early Childhood Care and Development (ECCD) program in the Philippines, aim to expand access to quality early childhood education and improve school readiness among vulnerable children. By prioritizing early childhood education, we can break the cycle of poverty and foster a more inclusive society.

The Role of Scholarships and Financial Assistance

To address the educational barriers faced by impoverished individuals, scholarships and financial assistance programs are crucial. These initiatives provide financial support to deserving students, enabling them to pursue higher education and uplift themselves from the grips of poverty.

Organizations like the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) and the Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD) in the Philippines offer various scholarship programs to students from low-income backgrounds. These scholarships cover tuition fees, books, and other educational expenses, making higher education more accessible.

Moreover, private institutions and non-profit organizations also play a significant role in providing scholarships and grants to deserving students. These initiatives bridge the financial gap, empower students with educational opportunities, and help break the cycle of poverty.

Access to education should not be determined by one’s financial background. Scholarships and financial assistance programs are instrumental in ensuring that talented and motivated individuals have an equal chance to pursue their educational aspirations.

By expanding scholarship programs and enhancing financial assistance initiatives, we can create a more equitable education system and empower individuals to overcome poverty through education.

Vulnerability to Shocks and Risks

Many Filipino households face significant vulnerability to a range of shocks and risks that contribute to the persistence of poverty. These vulnerabilities include economic crises, conflicts, natural disasters, and environmental poverty.

When these events occur, vulnerable populations are at a higher risk of falling into poverty due to the disruption of livelihoods and limited access to resources. The impact of these shocks and risks can be devastating, pushing already vulnerable individuals and families into even more precarious circumstances.

It is crucial to recognize the challenges faced by these vulnerable populations and provide them with adequate safety nets and support. These safety nets can act as a buffer during times of crisis, helping affected individuals and families meet their basic needs and regain stability.

Governance and Institutional Constraints

Governance and institutional capacity play a crucial role in addressing poverty in the Philippines. However, these aspects often pose challenges to the effective implementation of poverty reduction measures and the overall poverty response.

The weak local government capacity in some areas hinders the efficient delivery of services and programs to those in need. Limited resources and inadequate infrastructure further exacerbate the difficulties faced by local authorities in effectively addressing poverty-related issues.

Moreover, deficient targeting in poverty programs leads to a lack of efficient and equitable distribution of resources. Without accurate and targeted interventions, the impact of poverty reduction initiatives may be diluted, leaving vulnerable populations without the necessary support to overcome poverty.

“Good governance is vital to ensuring that poverty reduction efforts are effective, efficient, and inclusive for all segments of society.”

Add to these challenges the resource gaps for poverty reduction, and the task becomes even more daunting. Insufficient financial resources and limited funding opportunities hinder the implementation of comprehensive poverty alleviation strategies.

Addressing governance and institutional constraints is key to unlocking the full potential of poverty reduction efforts in the Philippines. Strengthening local government capacity, improving targeting mechanisms, and increasing resource allocation for poverty reduction are essential steps in creating a more effective and sustainable poverty response.

By addressing these challenges head-on, the Philippines can foster an enabling environment that facilitates policy implementation, ensures equitable distribution of resources, and empowers local communities to lift themselves out of poverty.

Governance and Institutional Constraints Table:

Resource Gaps and MDG Targets

The Philippines faces significant resource gaps in its poverty reduction programs and the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) by 2015. These resource gaps present challenges to the country’s efforts to achieve sustainable and inclusive growth, as well as to reduce poverty effectively.

In order to address these resource gaps, it is crucial for the government and key stakeholders to increase investment and funding in poverty reduction programs. Adequate resources are essential to implement targeted interventions, provide necessary support services, and ensure that the most vulnerable populations receive the assistance they need to escape the cycle of poverty.

Investing in poverty reduction programs is not just an obligation towards meeting international development targets; it is also an investment in the future of the country. By addressing resource gaps and implementing effective poverty reduction strategies, the Philippines can create a more equitable and prosperous society for all.

Investment in Poverty Reduction Programs

Table: Comparison of Funding Allocations for Poverty Reduction Programs in the Philippines

Table Description: The table provides a comparison of the allocated budget for key poverty reduction programs in the Philippines. These programs aim to address the needs of the poor and vulnerable populations, providing assistance in education, employment, healthcare, and social protection.

By significantly increasing financial resources for poverty reduction programs, the government can expand the coverage and impact of these initiatives, reaching a larger number of individuals and families in need. This would contribute to the country’s progress in achieving the MDG targets, particularly in relation to poverty eradication and improving access to basic services.

Multidimensional Approaches to Poverty Reduction

The issue of poverty in the Philippines is complex and multifaceted, requiring a multidimensional approach to effectively address it. While economic growth is undoubtedly important, a holistic approach that encompasses various dimensions of poverty is necessary to bring about sustainable and meaningful change in the lives of the poor.

A holistic approach to poverty reduction goes beyond just increasing income levels. It focuses on improving the overall well-being of individuals and communities by addressing the social, educational, and environmental aspects of poverty. By taking into account these different dimensions, poverty reduction strategies can create a more inclusive and equitable society.

“Poverty is not simply the lack of income; it is a state of deprivation that affects all aspects of a person’s life.”

Through a holistic approach, social issues such as access to healthcare, education, and social protection can be tackled alongside economic growth. This ensures that the most vulnerable members of society are not left behind and have the necessary support to improve their livelihoods.

Focusing on education is crucial in breaking the cycle of poverty. By providing quality education and skills development opportunities, individuals can gain the knowledge and skills necessary to secure better job opportunities and lift themselves out of poverty. Additionally, addressing environmental sustainability is vital to ensure the long-term well-being of future generations and guard against the adverse impacts of climate change.

To illustrate the multidimensional nature of poverty and showcase the effectiveness of a holistic approach, the table below highlights the different dimensions and corresponding poverty reduction strategies:

A holistic approach to poverty reduction requires collaboration and coordination among various stakeholders, including government agencies, civil society organizations, and the private sector. It demands a long-term commitment to sustainable development and ensuring that poverty reduction efforts are integrated into national policies and strategies.

By adopting a multidimensional approach to poverty reduction, the Philippines can make significant progress in addressing the root causes of poverty and empowering individuals and communities to build better lives for themselves. It is only through a comprehensive and inclusive strategy that we can create a future where no one is left behind.

Conclusion

In conclusion, poverty in the Philippines is a complex issue influenced by multiple factors. The causes of poverty include low to moderate economic growth, weakness in employment generation, failure to develop the agriculture sector, high levels of inequality, recurring shocks and risks, and high population growth. To effectively address these causes and work towards poverty reduction, a collective and coordinated response is crucial.

Policies and programs should prioritize sustainable and inclusive growth to ensure that economic expansion benefits all segments of society. Investing in education is essential to equip individuals with the skills and knowledge needed to escape poverty. Additionally, implementing social safety nets can provide support and assistance to vulnerable populations, helping them overcome the challenges they face.

Furthermore, governance reforms are necessary to enhance the capacity and efficiency of government institutions in implementing poverty reduction strategies. By addressing these causes of poverty and adopting a multidimensional approach, the Philippines can achieve more equitable development and improve the lives of its citizens.

Source Links

• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poverty_in_the_Philippines
• https://www.adb.org/publications/poverty-philippines-causes-constraints-and-opportunities
• https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/27529/poverty-philippines-causes-constraints-opportunities.pdf